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2 <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"><html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"><head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /><title>37.1. Overview of Trigger Behavior</title><link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="stylesheet.css" /><link rev="made" href="pgsql-docs@lists.postgresql.org" /><meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets Vsnapshot" /><link rel="prev" href="triggers.html" title="Chapter 37. Triggers" /><link rel="next" href="trigger-datachanges.html" title="37.2. Visibility of Data Changes" /></head><body id="docContent" class="container-fluid col-10"><div class="navheader"><table width="100%" summary="Navigation header"><tr><th colspan="5" align="center">37.1. Overview of Trigger Behavior</th></tr><tr><td width="10%" align="left"><a accesskey="p" href="triggers.html" title="Chapter 37. Triggers">Prev</a> </td><td width="10%" align="left"><a accesskey="u" href="triggers.html" title="Chapter 37. Triggers">Up</a></td><th width="60%" align="center">Chapter 37. Triggers</th><td width="10%" align="right"><a accesskey="h" href="index.html" title="PostgreSQL 18.0 Documentation">Home</a></td><td width="10%" align="right"> <a accesskey="n" href="trigger-datachanges.html" title="37.2. Visibility of Data Changes">Next</a></td></tr></table><hr /></div><div class="sect1" id="TRIGGER-DEFINITION"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">37.1. Overview of Trigger Behavior <a href="#TRIGGER-DEFINITION" class="id_link">#</a></h2></div></div></div><p>
3 A trigger is a specification that the database should automatically
4 execute a particular function whenever a certain type of operation is
5 performed. Triggers can be attached to tables (partitioned or not),
6 views, and foreign tables.
8 On tables and foreign tables, triggers can be defined to execute either
9 before or after any <code class="command">INSERT</code>, <code class="command">UPDATE</code>,
10 or <code class="command">DELETE</code> operation, either once per modified row,
11 or once per <acronym class="acronym">SQL</acronym> statement.
12 <code class="command">UPDATE</code> triggers can moreover be set to fire only if
13 certain columns are mentioned in the <code class="literal">SET</code> clause of
14 the <code class="command">UPDATE</code> statement. Triggers can also fire
15 for <code class="command">TRUNCATE</code> statements. If a trigger event occurs,
16 the trigger's function is called at the appropriate time to handle the
19 On views, triggers can be defined to execute instead of
20 <code class="command">INSERT</code>, <code class="command">UPDATE</code>, or
21 <code class="command">DELETE</code> operations.
22 Such <code class="literal">INSTEAD OF</code> triggers
23 are fired once for each row that needs to be modified in the view.
24 It is the responsibility of the
25 trigger's function to perform the necessary modifications to the view's
26 underlying base table(s) and, where appropriate, return the modified
27 row as it will appear in the view. Triggers on views can also be defined
28 to execute once per <acronym class="acronym">SQL</acronym> statement, before or after
29 <code class="command">INSERT</code>, <code class="command">UPDATE</code>, or
30 <code class="command">DELETE</code> operations.
31 However, such triggers are fired only if there is also
32 an <code class="literal">INSTEAD OF</code> trigger on the view. Otherwise,
33 any statement targeting the view must be rewritten into a statement
34 affecting its underlying base table(s), and then the triggers
35 that will be fired are the ones attached to the base table(s).
37 The trigger function must be defined before the trigger itself can be
38 created. The trigger function must be declared as a
39 function taking no arguments and returning type <code class="literal">trigger</code>.
40 (The trigger function receives its input through a specially-passed
41 <code class="structname">TriggerData</code> structure, not in the form of ordinary function
44 Once a suitable trigger function has been created, the trigger is
46 <a class="xref" href="sql-createtrigger.html" title="CREATE TRIGGER"><span class="refentrytitle">CREATE TRIGGER</span></a>.
47 The same trigger function can be used for multiple triggers.
49 <span class="productname">PostgreSQL</span> offers both <em class="firstterm">per-row</em>
50 triggers and <em class="firstterm">per-statement</em> triggers. With a per-row
51 trigger, the trigger function
52 is invoked once for each row that is affected by the statement
53 that fired the trigger. In contrast, a per-statement trigger is
54 invoked only once when an appropriate statement is executed,
55 regardless of the number of rows affected by that statement. In
56 particular, a statement that affects zero rows will still result
57 in the execution of any applicable per-statement triggers. These
58 two types of triggers are sometimes called <em class="firstterm">row-level</em>
59 triggers and <em class="firstterm">statement-level</em> triggers,
60 respectively. Triggers on <code class="command">TRUNCATE</code> may only be
61 defined at statement level, not per-row.
63 Triggers are also classified according to whether they fire
64 <em class="firstterm">before</em>, <em class="firstterm">after</em>, or
65 <em class="firstterm">instead of</em> the operation. These are referred to
66 as <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> triggers, <code class="literal">AFTER</code> triggers, and
67 <code class="literal">INSTEAD OF</code> triggers respectively.
68 Statement-level <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> triggers naturally fire before the
69 statement starts to do anything, while statement-level <code class="literal">AFTER</code>
70 triggers fire at the very end of the statement. These types of
71 triggers may be defined on tables, views, or foreign tables. Row-level
72 <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> triggers fire immediately before a particular row is
73 operated on, while row-level <code class="literal">AFTER</code> triggers fire at the end of
74 the statement (but before any statement-level <code class="literal">AFTER</code> triggers).
75 These types of triggers may only be defined on tables and
76 foreign tables, not views.
77 <code class="literal">INSTEAD OF</code> triggers may only be
78 defined on views, and only at row level; they fire immediately as each
79 row in the view is identified as needing to be operated on.
81 The execution of an <code class="literal">AFTER</code> trigger can be deferred
82 to the end of the transaction, rather than the end of the statement,
83 if it was defined as a <em class="firstterm">constraint trigger</em>.
84 In all cases, a trigger is executed as part of the same transaction as
85 the statement that triggered it, so if either the statement or the
86 trigger causes an error, the effects of both will be rolled back.
87 Also, the trigger will always run as the role that queued the trigger
88 event, unless the trigger function is marked as <code class="literal">SECURITY
89 DEFINER</code>, in which case it will run as the function owner.
91 If an <code class="command">INSERT</code> contains an <code class="literal">ON CONFLICT
92 DO UPDATE</code> clause, it is possible for row-level
93 <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> <code class="command">INSERT</code> and then
94 <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> <code class="command">UPDATE</code> triggers
95 to be executed on triggered rows. Such interactions can be
96 complex if the triggers are not idempotent because change made by
97 <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> <code class="command">INSERT</code> triggers will be
98 seen by <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> <code class="command">UPDATE</code> triggers,
99 including changes to <code class="varname">EXCLUDED</code> columns.
101 Note that statement-level
102 <code class="command">UPDATE</code> triggers are executed when <code class="literal">ON
103 CONFLICT DO UPDATE</code> is specified, regardless of whether or not
104 any rows were affected by the <code class="command">UPDATE</code> (and
105 regardless of whether the alternative <code class="command">UPDATE</code>
106 path was ever taken). An <code class="command">INSERT</code> with an
107 <code class="literal">ON CONFLICT DO UPDATE</code> clause will execute
108 statement-level <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> <code class="command">INSERT</code>
109 triggers first, then statement-level <code class="literal">BEFORE</code>
110 <code class="command">UPDATE</code> triggers, followed by statement-level
111 <code class="literal">AFTER</code> <code class="command">UPDATE</code> triggers and finally
112 statement-level <code class="literal">AFTER</code> <code class="command">INSERT</code>
115 A statement that targets a parent table in an inheritance or partitioning
116 hierarchy does not cause the statement-level triggers of affected child
117 tables to be fired; only the parent table's statement-level triggers are
118 fired. However, row-level triggers of any affected child tables will be
121 If an <code class="command">UPDATE</code> on a partitioned table causes a row to move
122 to another partition, it will be performed as a <code class="command">DELETE</code>
123 from the original partition followed by an <code class="command">INSERT</code> into
124 the new partition. In this case, all row-level <code class="literal">BEFORE</code>
125 <code class="command">UPDATE</code> triggers and all row-level
126 <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> <code class="command">DELETE</code> triggers are fired on
127 the original partition. Then all row-level <code class="literal">BEFORE</code>
128 <code class="command">INSERT</code> triggers are fired on the destination partition.
129 The possibility of surprising outcomes should be considered when all these
130 triggers affect the row being moved. As far as <code class="literal">AFTER ROW</code>
131 triggers are concerned, <code class="literal">AFTER</code> <code class="command">DELETE</code>
132 and <code class="literal">AFTER</code> <code class="command">INSERT</code> triggers are
133 applied; but <code class="literal">AFTER</code> <code class="command">UPDATE</code> triggers
134 are not applied because the <code class="command">UPDATE</code> has been converted to
135 a <code class="command">DELETE</code> and an <code class="command">INSERT</code>. As far as
136 statement-level triggers are concerned, none of the
137 <code class="command">DELETE</code> or <code class="command">INSERT</code> triggers are fired,
138 even if row movement occurs; only the <code class="command">UPDATE</code> triggers
139 defined on the target table used in the <code class="command">UPDATE</code> statement
142 No separate triggers are defined for <code class="command">MERGE</code>. Instead,
143 statement-level or row-level <code class="command">UPDATE</code>,
144 <code class="command">DELETE</code>, and <code class="command">INSERT</code> triggers are fired
145 depending on (for statement-level triggers) what actions are specified in
146 the <code class="command">MERGE</code> query and (for row-level triggers) what
147 actions are performed.
149 While running a <code class="command">MERGE</code> command, statement-level
150 <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> and <code class="literal">AFTER</code> triggers are
151 fired for events specified in the actions of the <code class="command">MERGE</code>
152 command, irrespective of whether or not the action is ultimately performed.
153 This is the same as an <code class="command">UPDATE</code> statement that updates
154 no rows, yet statement-level triggers are fired.
155 The row-level triggers are fired only when a row is actually updated,
156 inserted or deleted. So it's perfectly legal that while statement-level
157 triggers are fired for certain types of action, no row-level triggers
158 are fired for the same kind of action.
160 Trigger functions invoked by per-statement triggers should always
161 return <code class="symbol">NULL</code>. Trigger functions invoked by per-row
162 triggers can return a table row (a value of
163 type <code class="structname">HeapTuple</code>) to the calling executor,
164 if they choose. A row-level trigger fired before an operation has
165 the following choices:
167 </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: disc; "><li class="listitem"><p>
168 It can return <code class="symbol">NULL</code> to skip the operation for the
169 current row. This instructs the executor to not perform the
170 row-level operation that invoked the trigger (the insertion,
171 modification, or deletion of a particular table row).
172 </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
173 For row-level <code class="command">INSERT</code>
174 and <code class="command">UPDATE</code> triggers only, the returned row
175 becomes the row that will be inserted or will replace the row
176 being updated. This allows the trigger function to modify the
177 row being inserted or updated.
178 </p></li></ul></div><p>
180 A row-level <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> trigger that does not intend to cause
181 either of these behaviors must be careful to return as its result the same
182 row that was passed in (that is, the <code class="varname">NEW</code> row
183 for <code class="command">INSERT</code> and <code class="command">UPDATE</code>
184 triggers, the <code class="varname">OLD</code> row for
185 <code class="command">DELETE</code> triggers).
187 A row-level <code class="literal">INSTEAD OF</code> trigger should either return
188 <code class="symbol">NULL</code> to indicate that it did not modify any data from
189 the view's underlying base tables, or it should return the view
190 row that was passed in (the <code class="varname">NEW</code> row
191 for <code class="command">INSERT</code> and <code class="command">UPDATE</code>
192 operations, or the <code class="varname">OLD</code> row for
193 <code class="command">DELETE</code> operations). A nonnull return value is
194 used to signal that the trigger performed the necessary data
195 modifications in the view. This will cause the count of the number
196 of rows affected by the command to be incremented. For
197 <code class="command">INSERT</code> and <code class="command">UPDATE</code> operations only, the trigger
198 may modify the <code class="varname">NEW</code> row before returning it. This will
199 change the data returned by
200 <code class="command">INSERT RETURNING</code> or <code class="command">UPDATE RETURNING</code>,
201 and is useful when the view will not show exactly the same data
204 The return value is ignored for row-level triggers fired after an
205 operation, and so they can return <code class="symbol">NULL</code>.
207 Some considerations apply for generated
208 columns.<a id="id-1.8.4.5.19.1" class="indexterm"></a> Stored generated columns are computed after
209 <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> triggers and before <code class="literal">AFTER</code>
210 triggers. Therefore, the generated value can be inspected in
211 <code class="literal">AFTER</code> triggers. In <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> triggers,
212 the <code class="literal">OLD</code> row contains the old generated value, as one
213 would expect, but the <code class="literal">NEW</code> row does not yet contain the
214 new generated value and should not be accessed. In the C language
215 interface, the content of the column is undefined at this point; a
216 higher-level programming language should prevent access to a stored
217 generated column in the <code class="literal">NEW</code> row in a
218 <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> trigger. Changes to the value of a generated
219 column in a <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> trigger are ignored and will be
221 Virtual generated columns are never computed when triggers fire. In the C
222 language interface, their content is undefined in a trigger function.
223 Higher-level programming languages should prevent access to virtual
224 generated columns in triggers.
226 If more than one trigger is defined for the same event on the same
227 relation, the triggers will be fired in alphabetical order by
228 trigger name. In the case of <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> and
229 <code class="literal">INSTEAD OF</code> triggers, the possibly-modified row returned by
230 each trigger becomes the input to the next trigger. If any
231 <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> or <code class="literal">INSTEAD OF</code> trigger returns
232 <code class="symbol">NULL</code>, the operation is abandoned for that row and subsequent
233 triggers are not fired (for that row).
235 A trigger definition can also specify a Boolean <code class="literal">WHEN</code>
236 condition, which will be tested to see whether the trigger should
237 be fired. In row-level triggers the <code class="literal">WHEN</code> condition can
238 examine the old and/or new values of columns of the row. (Statement-level
239 triggers can also have <code class="literal">WHEN</code> conditions, although the feature
240 is not so useful for them.) In a <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> trigger, the
241 <code class="literal">WHEN</code>
242 condition is evaluated just before the function is or would be executed,
243 so using <code class="literal">WHEN</code> is not materially different from testing the
244 same condition at the beginning of the trigger function. However, in
245 an <code class="literal">AFTER</code> trigger, the <code class="literal">WHEN</code> condition is evaluated
246 just after the row update occurs, and it determines whether an event is
247 queued to fire the trigger at the end of statement. So when an
248 <code class="literal">AFTER</code> trigger's
249 <code class="literal">WHEN</code> condition does not return true, it is not necessary
250 to queue an event nor to re-fetch the row at end of statement. This
251 can result in significant speedups in statements that modify many
252 rows, if the trigger only needs to be fired for a few of the rows.
253 <code class="literal">INSTEAD OF</code> triggers do not support
254 <code class="literal">WHEN</code> conditions.
256 Typically, row-level <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> triggers are used for checking or
257 modifying the data that will be inserted or updated. For example,
258 a <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> trigger might be used to insert the current time into a
259 <code class="type">timestamp</code> column, or to check that two elements of the row are
260 consistent. Row-level <code class="literal">AFTER</code> triggers are most sensibly
261 used to propagate the updates to other tables, or make consistency
262 checks against other tables. The reason for this division of labor is
263 that an <code class="literal">AFTER</code> trigger can be certain it is seeing the final
264 value of the row, while a <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> trigger cannot; there might
265 be other <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> triggers firing after it. If you have no
266 specific reason to make a trigger <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> or
267 <code class="literal">AFTER</code>, the <code class="literal">BEFORE</code> case is more efficient, since
268 the information about
269 the operation doesn't have to be saved until end of statement.
271 If a trigger function executes SQL commands then these
272 commands might fire triggers again. This is known as cascading
273 triggers. There is no direct limitation on the number of cascade
274 levels. It is possible for cascades to cause a recursive invocation
275 of the same trigger; for example, an <code class="command">INSERT</code>
276 trigger might execute a command that inserts an additional row
277 into the same table, causing the <code class="command">INSERT</code> trigger
278 to be fired again. It is the trigger programmer's responsibility
279 to avoid infinite recursion in such scenarios.
281 If a foreign key constraint specifies referential actions (that
282 is, cascading updates or deletes), those actions are performed via
283 ordinary SQL <code class="command">UPDATE</code> or <code class="command">DELETE</code>
284 commands on the referencing table.
285 In particular, any triggers that exist on the referencing table
286 will be fired for those changes. If such a trigger modifies or
287 blocks the effect of one of these commands, the end result could
288 be to break referential integrity. It is the trigger programmer's
289 responsibility to avoid that.
291 <a id="id-1.8.4.5.25.1" class="indexterm"></a>
292 When a trigger is being defined, arguments can be specified for
293 it. The purpose of including arguments in the
294 trigger definition is to allow different triggers with similar
295 requirements to call the same function. As an example, there
296 could be a generalized trigger function that takes as its
297 arguments two column names and puts the current user in one and
298 the current time stamp in the other. Properly written, this
299 trigger function would be independent of the specific table it is
300 triggering on. So the same function could be used for
301 <code class="command">INSERT</code> events on any table with suitable
302 columns, to automatically track creation of records in a
303 transaction table for example. It could also be used to track
304 last-update events if defined as an <code class="command">UPDATE</code>
307 Each programming language that supports triggers has its own method
308 for making the trigger input data available to the trigger function.
309 This input data includes the type of trigger event (e.g.,
310 <code class="command">INSERT</code> or <code class="command">UPDATE</code>) as well as any
311 arguments that were listed in <code class="command">CREATE TRIGGER</code>.
312 For a row-level trigger, the input data also includes the
313 <code class="varname">NEW</code> row for <code class="command">INSERT</code> and
314 <code class="command">UPDATE</code> triggers, and/or the <code class="varname">OLD</code> row
315 for <code class="command">UPDATE</code> and <code class="command">DELETE</code> triggers.
317 By default, statement-level triggers do not have any way to examine the
318 individual row(s) modified by the statement. But an <code class="literal">AFTER
319 STATEMENT</code> trigger can request that <em class="firstterm">transition tables</em>
320 be created to make the sets of affected rows available to the trigger.
321 <code class="literal">AFTER ROW</code> triggers can also request transition tables, so
322 that they can see the total changes in the table as well as the change in
323 the individual row they are currently being fired for. The method for
324 examining the transition tables again depends on the programming language
325 that is being used, but the typical approach is to make the transition
326 tables act like read-only temporary tables that can be accessed by SQL
327 commands issued within the trigger function.
328 </p></div><div class="navfooter"><hr /><table width="100%" summary="Navigation footer"><tr><td width="40%" align="left"><a accesskey="p" href="triggers.html" title="Chapter 37. Triggers">Prev</a> </td><td width="20%" align="center"><a accesskey="u" href="triggers.html" title="Chapter 37. Triggers">Up</a></td><td width="40%" align="right"> <a accesskey="n" href="trigger-datachanges.html" title="37.2. Visibility of Data Changes">Next</a></td></tr><tr><td width="40%" align="left" valign="top">Chapter 37. Triggers </td><td width="20%" align="center"><a accesskey="h" href="index.html" title="PostgreSQL 18.0 Documentation">Home</a></td><td width="40%" align="right" valign="top"> 37.2. Visibility of Data Changes</td></tr></table></div></body></html>